• Disease Overview
  • Synonyms
  • Signs & Symptoms
  • Causes
  • Affected Populations
  • Disorders with Similar Symptoms
  • Diagnosis
  • Standard Therapies
  • Clinical Trials and Studies
  • References
  • Programs & Resources
  • Complete Report

Aceruloplasminemia

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Last updated: March 01, 2019
Years published: 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019


Acknowledgment

NORD gratefully acknowledges Alisdair McNeill, PhD, FRCP Edin DCH, Senior Clinical Fellow & Honorary Consultant, Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, for assistance in the preparation of this report.


Disease Overview

Aceruloplasminemia is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the abnormal accumulation of iron in the brain and various internal organs. Affected individuals develop neurological symptoms including cognitive impairment and movement disorders. Degeneration of the retina and diabetes may also occur. Symptoms usually become apparent during adulthood between 20 and 60 years of age. Aceruloplasminemia is caused by mutations of the ceruloplasmin (CP) gene. This mutation is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

Aceruloplasminemia is classified as a neurodegenerative disorder with brain iron accumulation (NBIA). NBIA are a group of rare inherited disorders characterized by iron accumulation in the brain. Aceruloplasminemia is also classified as an iron overload disorder.

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Synonyms

  • familial apoceruloplasmin deficiency
  • hereditary ceruloplasmin deficiency
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Signs & Symptoms

The symptoms and severity of aceruloplasminemia vary from one person to another even among members of the same family. The age of onset varies as well, ranging from anywhere between the 20s and 60s. The three main findings associated with aceruloplasminemia are retinal degeneration, neurological symptoms and diabetes mellitus.

Some individuals with aceruloplasminemia develop mild anemia (low levels of circulating red blood cells), which can cause fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath and pale skin. Anemia often occurs before the development of other symptoms commonly associated with aceruloplasminemia.

Many affected individuals develop progressive degeneration of the retinas. The retinas are the thin layers of nerve cells that line the inner surface of the eyes. The retinas sense light and convert it to nerve signals, which are then relayed to the brain through the optic nerve. The damage to the retinal tissue can result from iron deposition or be related to the diabetes that develops as part of aceruloplasminemia.

A variety of neurological symptoms occur in individuals with aceruloplasminemia because of the accumulation of iron in the brain. Specific symptoms may vary, but often include movement disorders, an inability to coordinate voluntary movements (ataxia), slurred speech or difficulty speaking (dysarthria), behavioral changes and cognitive impairment.

Movement disorders associated with aceruloplasminemia include tremors, chorea (rapid, involuntary, jerky movements) and dystonia, which refers to a group of muscle disorders generally characterized by involuntary muscle contractions that force the body into abnormal, sometimes painful, movements and positions (postures). An example of dystonia is blepharospasm, a condition characterized by involuntary muscle spasms and contractions of the muscles around the eyes.

Some affected individuals develop symptoms may resemble those found in Parkinson’s disease, which is sometimes referred to as Parkinsonism. These symptoms include tremors, abnormal slowness of movement and an inability to remain in a stable or balanced position. Some individuals with aceruloplasminemia develop cognitive impairment, which can progress to dementia. Behavioral or emotional changes (e.g., depression) may also occur.

Iron accumulation in individuals with aceruloplasminemia may also occur in the pancreas. The pancreas is a small organ located behind the stomach that secretes enzymes that travel to the intestines and aid in digestion. The pancreas also secretes other hormones such as insulin, which helps break down sugar. Damage to the pancreas may ultimately lead to diabetes mellitus. Diabetes is a common disorder in which the body does not produce enough or is unable to properly use insulin. Therefore, the body is not able to properly convert nutrients into the energy necessary for daily activities. The most obvious symptoms are unusually excessive thirst and urination.

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Causes

Aceruloplasminemia is caused by mutations of the ceruloplasmin (CP) gene and is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. Genetic diseases are determined by the combination of genes for a particular trait that are on the chromosomes received from the father and the mother.

Recessive genetic disorders occur when an individual inherits a non-working gene from each parent. If an individual receives one working gene and one non-working gene for the disease, the person will be a carrier for the disease, but usually will not show symptoms. The risk for two carrier parents to both pass the non-working gene and, therefore, have an affected child is 25% with each pregnancy. The risk to have a child who is a carrier, like the parents, is 50% with each pregnancy. The chance for a child to receive working genes from both parents is 25%. The risk is the same for males and females.

In most recessive conditions, individuals with one working gene and one gene for the disease (carriers) do not develop symptoms, however, in aceruloplasminemia carriers may, in rare cases develop cerebellar ataxia (problems coordinating movements).

The CP gene contains instructions for producing the enzyme ceruloplasmin. This enzyme is essential for the proper function and transport of iron within the body. Mutations of the CP gene result in deficient levels of functional ceruloplasmin, which ultimately results in the accumulation of iron in the brain and other organs of the body. Iron accumulation damages the tissue of affected organs causing the characteristic symptoms of aceruloplasminemia.

Iron is a critical mineral that is found in all cells of the body and is essential for the body to function and grow properly. Iron is found many types of food including red meat, poultry, eggs and vegetables. Iron levels must remain in a specific range within the body, otherwise they can cause anemia (due to low iron levels) or damage affected organs (due to high iron levels).

In most individuals with aceruloplasminemia, iron accumulates within the basal ganglia, a part of the brain that consists of three clusters of brain cells (neurons). The basal ganglia processes information involved in involuntary movements, coordination and cognition. The specific neurological symptoms that develop in aceruloplasminemia depend on the exact location and extent of iron accumulation within the brain.

Diabetes associated with aceruloplasminemia results from iron accumulation in the pancreas. Iron can also accumulate elsewhere in the body such as the retinas or liver. Liver damage does not occur in aceruloplasminemia.

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Affected populations

Aceruloplasminemia is an extremely rare disorder that affects males and females in equal numbers. The exact incidence of aceruloplasminemia is unknown. It may be more prevalent in Japan, where it is estimated to affect 1 individual per 2,000,000 in the general population. Because many cases of aceruloplasminemia go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, determining the disorder’s true frequency in the general population is difficult. Aceruloplasminemia was first described in the medical literature in 1992.

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Diagnosis

A diagnosis of aceruloplasminemia is made based upon identification of characteristic symptoms, a detailed patient history, a thorough clinical evaluation and a variety of specialized tests. Blood tests can reveal certain findings associated with aceruloplasminemia including absent blood ceruloplasmin and low concentrations of copper and iron in serum. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and liver can reveal characteristic findings that indicate the accumulation of iron. An MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to produce cross-sectional images of particular organs and bodily tissues. A genetic test to demonstrate mutations in the CP gene is the definitive diagnostic test.

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Standard Therapies

Treatment
The treatment of aceruloplasminemia is directed toward the specific symptoms that are apparent in each individual. Individuals with aceruloplasminemia may be treated with a drug called desferrioxamine, an iron chelator. Iron chelators are drugs that bind to the excess iron in the body allowing it to be dissolved in water and excreted from the body through the kidneys. It has not been conclusively established that iron chelation improves symptoms in aceruloplasminemia.

Individuals with aceruloplasminemia should avoid substances that increase the levels of iron in the body.

Other treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Of particular importance is management of diabetes, with appropriate diet, tablets and insulin injects as needed.

Genetic counseling is recommended for affected individuals and their families.

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Clinical Trials and Studies

Individuals with aceruloplasminemia have also been treated with fresh frozen plasma to restore normal levels of functional ceruloplasmin. Individuals treated with fresh frozen plasma and desferrioxamine have experienced a decrease in the levels of iron in the liver. Repeated transfusions of fresh frozen plasma have led to a decrease in levels of iron in the brain in some cases.

Antioxidants such as vitamin E have been used along with an iron chelator or with oral zinc sulfate to prevent tissue damage in individuals with aceruloplasminemia. Antioxidants are substances that are believed to protect cells from damage from unstable molecules called free radicals.

Information on current clinical trials is posted on the Internet at www.clinicaltrials.gov. All studies receiving U.S. Government funding, and some supported by private industry, are posted on this government web site.

For information about clinical trials being conducted at the NIH Clinical Center in Bethesda, MD, contact the NIH Patient Recruitment Office:

Tollfree: (800) 411-1222
TTY: (866) 411-1010
Email: prpl@cc.nih.gov

Some current clinical trials also are posted on the following page on the NORD website:
https://rarediseases.org/living-with-a-rare-disease/find-clinical-trials/

For information about clinical trials sponsored by private sources, contact:
www.centerwatch.com

For information about clinical trials conducted in Europe, contact:
https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/

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References

TEXTBOOKS
Rimoin D, Connor JM, Pyeritz RP, Korf BR. Eds. Emory and Rimoin’s Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics. 4th ed. Churchill Livingstone. New York, NY; 2002:2657.

Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, et al. Eds. The Metabolic Molecular Basis of Inherited Disease. 8th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies. New York, NY; 2001:3147.

JOURNAL ARTICLES
McNeill A, Pandolfo M, Kuhn J, Shang H, Miyajima H. The neurological presentation of ceruloplasmin gene mutations. Eur Neurol. 2008;60:200-205.

Kuhn J, Bewermeyer H, Miyajima H, et al. Treatment of symptomatic heterozygous aceruloplasminemia with oral zinc sulfate. Brain Dev. 2007;29:450-453.

Mariani R, Arosio C, Pelucchi S, et al. Iron chelation therapy in aceruloplasminemia: study of a patient with a novel missense mutation. Gut. 2004;53:756-758.

Miyajima H. Aceruloplasminemia, an iron metabolic disorder. Neuropathology. 2003;23:345-350.

Gitlin JD. Aceruloplasminemia. Pediatr Res. 1998;44:271-276.

Harris ZL, Klomp LWJ, Gitlin JD. Aceruloplasminemia: an inherited neurodegenerative disease with impairment of iron homeostasis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67:972S-977S.

Morita H, Inoue A, Yanagisawa N. A case of ceruloplasmin deficiency which showed dementia, ataxia and iron deposition in the brain. Rinsho Shinkeigaku. 1992;32:483-487.

INTERNET
Miyajima H, Hosoi Y. Aceruloplasminemia. 2003 Aug 12 [Updated 2018 Sep 27]. In: Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2018. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1493/ Accessed January 8, 2019.

McKusick VA., ed. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM). Baltimore. MD: The Johns Hopkins University; Entry No:604290; Last Update:12/06/2004. Available at: https://omim.org/entry/604290 Accessed January 8, 2019.

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